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Though many aspects of maternal behavior have influence
on the infant, it is possible that certain parenting behavior can
serve as early life stressors to the infant, which can adversely
affect the infant's development. The research project aims to determine
the extent to which adverse qualities of parenting of 3-month olds
influence their attachment security, intellectual functioning, and
temperament at 12-months of age. Mothers' sensitivity, intrusiveness,
withdrawal, positive and negative affect were coded from videotapes
of mothers interacting with their infants in a laboratory play setting.
Upon coding, a Pearson's R was used to correlate the mother's behavior
with her infants' outcome scores. The mother's concurrent depression
and her infant's attachment was not found to be significantly associated
with the observed variables. However, higher sensitivity and stimulation
were associated with higher scores on the mental BSID scale. Also,
higher sensitivity and lower negative affect was associated more
with typical temperament on the TABS. Future studies should test
parenting as a moderator of maternal depression's effect on the
infant's development. In addition, the mother should be observed
with her infant at 6 months to determine whether or not interaction
at 6 months is more highly associated with the infants' outcome
scores.
General Background Certain theorists argue that infancy
is a 'sensitive period' in which incidents have a long-lasting effect
that is unique to that stage of growth (Ainsworth, 1978; Bornstein,
1995). One essential aspect of infant development is the acquisition
of attachment relationships with primary caretakers. Infants form
attachments by 7 months regardless of how the caretakers have treated
the infant, although the quality of the attachment relationship
is expected to differ (Main, 1996). In addition to affecting the
development of secure attachments, it is possible that certain parenting
behavior can serve as early life stressors to the baby, which can
adversely affect the infant's psychological development. According
to Graham, Heim, Goodman, Miller, and Nemeroff (1999) neurobiological
alterations due to exposure to early life stressors, one being maternal
depression, can be observed as early as the neonatal period. Mothers
with higher levels of depression symptoms may interact with their
infants in ways that are experienced by the child as being stressful,
relative to mother with low levels of depression. Researchers are
beginning to find that infants are fully aware of, imitate, and
are affected by their parent's negative and positive emotions (Bornstein,
1995). Why Is It Important To Observe The Early Parenting of Mothers
with a History of Depression? In a meta-analysis of 46 studies done
on maternal depression and parenting behavior, Lovejoy, Graczyk,
O'Hare, and Neuman (2000) concluded that the association between
depression and parenting is stronger among mothers of very young
children, most likely because as children get older they are less
dependent on their mother to shape interactions. Maternal depression
appears to have a strong association with irritability and hostility
toward the child and a weak association with positive interactions
with the child (Lovejoy et al,2000). Depressed mothers show increased
negative affect and they are more likely to be intrusive than non-depressed
mothers(Cohn, Campbell, Matias, and Hopkins, 1990) The babies of
depressed mothers are observed to show less positive affect and
to have slower responsiveness than the babies of non-depressed mothers
(Cohn et al, 1990). Purpose The aim of this research project is
to determine the extent to which adverse qualities of parenting
of 3-month olds influence their attachment security, intellectual
functioning, and self-regulatory functioning at 12-months of age.
Fifty-eight mothers were videotaped while interacting
with their babies at 3 months old in a laboratory play setting.
Each mother had had at least one episode of major depression prior
to pregnancy, was a first time parent, and was in a stable relationship.
Maternal behavior was measured based on five constructs: sensitivity,
positive affect, withdrawal, negative affect, and intrusiveness.
Rating scales were utilized to measure the behavior and one out
of every six tapes coded was randomly selected to test for inter-rater
reliability. Upon rating the videos, maternal behavior ratings were
tested for their association with the infant outcome measures at
12 months old.
Measures
Mother (Measure of Agreement)
1. Sensitivity - Sensitivity/responsiveness to distress scale (Campbell,
1991) - (70%) -Sensitivity/responsiveness to nondistress scale (Campbell,
1991) - (70%)
2. Intrusiveness - Intrusiveness scale (Campbell, 1991) - (90%)
- Cooperation vs. Interference scale (Ainsworth, 1976) - (60%)
3. Withdrawal - Detachment/ Disengagement scale (Campbell,1991)-
(100%) - Flatness of Affect scale (Campbell, 1991)- (90%)
4. Positive Affect - Positive Regard for the Child scale (Campbell,
1991)- (90%) - Warmth (Campbell et al, 1990) - (90%) - Stimulation
of Development scale (Campbell, 1991)- (70%)
5. Negative Affect - Quality and Amount of Physical Contact: Negative
scale (Clark, 1985)- (100%) - Angry, Hostile Mood scale (Clark,
1985) - (100%) - Displeasure, Disapproval, Criticism scale (Clark,
1985) - (90%)
Child
1. Attachment - The Strange Situation (Ainsworth, 1978)
2. Intellectual Functioning - Bayley Scales of Infant Development,
2nd ed. (Bayley, 1993)
3. Self-Regulation - Temperament and Atypical Behavior Scale (TABS)
Sample Characteristics
Mean age of Mother: 30(SD=5.3)
Ethnicity: 74% European American; 26% African American Marital Status:
78% married; 22% with partners
Mean Household Income: $76-80,000
Education: 73% with a college degree or higher
Mean # of episodes of MDD: 2.18(SD=3.25) Mean age of 1st major depressive
disorder(MDD) episode: 22(SD=7.2)
Concurrent depression was not significantly correlated with the
observed sensitivity, withdrawal, positive affect and negative affect
of parenting. There was a tendency for intrusive mothers to be more
depressed at the time of the observation. We found that out of the
five constructs, Positive Affect (with the exception of Stimulation
of Development) and Withdrawal had little variation. Over 90 % of
the mothers were rated as positive, warm, and not withdrawn. The
infant's attachment ratings were not significantly associated with
any of the observed variables. Higher scores of stimulation and
sensitivity were positively associated with accelerated and normal
mental development as recorded on the BSID. Lower scores of sensitivity
as well as higher scores on negative affect are associated with
more self-regulatory dysfunction s on the TABS. Future studies should
test parenting as a moderator of the association between maternal
depression and the infant's development. In addition, the mother
should be observed with her infant at 6 months to determine whether
or not interaction at 6 months is even more highly.
This work was partially supported by National Institute of Mental
Health Grant 1P50MH58922-01A1, the Silivo O. Conte Center for the
Neuroscience of Mental Disorders (Dr. Nemeroff, PI; Dr. Goodman,
PI of Project 8).
Rating Scales.
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